Table of Contents
Indian philosophy encompasses the diverse systems of thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These traditions are classified into orthodox (astika) and unorthodox (nastika) schools.
The orthodox systems include Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa (Mimamsa), and Vedanta. In contrast, the unorthodox schools consist of Buddhism and Jainism.
Indian philosophy delves into profound subjects such as cosmology (nature of the world), metaphysics (nature of reality), logic, epistemology (knowledge), ethics, and the philosophy of religion. Each tradition seeks to explore fundamental questions about life, existence, and ultimate truth.
General considerations
Significance of Indian philosophies in the history of philosophy
Indian philosophy shares both similarities and differences with Western philosophy, offering unique insights into fundamental questions.
One key difference lies in the questions each tradition prioritizes. Indian philosophers explored concepts like the origin (utpatti) and understanding (jnapti) of truth (pramanya), which were rarely addressed in the West. Meanwhile, Western philosophy focused on issues such as whether knowledge comes from experience or reason and distinctions like analytic vs. synthetic judgments or contingent vs. necessary truths, topics less emphasized in Indian thought.
The Vedic hymns (2nd millennium BCE), the oldest surviving Indian scriptures, provide a deep understanding of how the human mind creates gods and the psychological roots of mythmaking. These ideas laid the foundation for profound philosophical explorations of the universe.
The Upanishads, a collection of philosophical texts, introduced the concept of a universal, all-pervading spiritual reality. This led to the belief in radical monism—the idea that matter and spirit are essentially one.
General characteristics of Indian philosophy
Common concerns
Indian philosophy encompasses various views, theories, and systems, making pinpointing common features across all schools difficult. One thing that unites the orthodox (astika) systems is the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas, which is not shared by unorthodox (nastika) systems like Charvaka (radical materialism), Buddhism, and Jainism. Even among philosophers who followed the Vedas, their ideas were not restricted by it. Instead, the Vedas were often cited to gain acceptance for new or unconventional ideas. For example, the Vaisheshika thinkers believed in ultimate particulars like individual souls and atoms, and the Advaita Vedanta philosophers, who believed in monism, used the Vedas to support their views.
Forms of argument and presentation
Indian philosophy differs from Western thought in both its structure and historical development. After the early Vedic hymns and Upanishads offered diverse philosophical ideas, Indian philosophy moved into the age of the sutras. The sutras are concise summaries of key ideas, leading to a structured classification of philosophical systems (darshans).
Roles of sacred texts, mythology, and theism
The role of sacred texts in the development of Indian philosophy varies across different philosophical systems. In spiritual sciences, known as adhyatmavidya, sacred texts are much more significant than logical systems, such as anvikshikividya (the study of reasoning). Shankara was a prominent philosopher of Advaita Vedanta (c. 788–820 CE). Shankara argued that reasoning should only be used if it aligns with the scriptures. Regarding spiritual matters, reasoning alone cannot provide certainty, as any argument can be countered with an opposing one. Therefore, the sacred texts, based on the insights of spiritual seers, are considered authoritative, and reasoning should be secondary to them.
A general history of development and cultural background
S.N. Dasgupta, a 20th-century Indian philosopher, categorized the history of Indian philosophy into three periods: the prelogical, the logical, and the ultralogical. The prelogical period covers the time up to the beginning of the Christian era, including the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods (around 321–185 BCE). The logical period begins around the Kushanas (1st–2nd centuries CE) and reaches its peak during the Gupta era (3rd–5th centuries CE) and the age of imperial Kanauj in the 7th century CE. The astrological period spans from the 11th to the 18th century CE.
The prelogical period
In its early prelogical phase, Indian thought developed by engaging with and incorporating various pre- and non-Vedic elements from the native culture that the Indo-Aryan-speaking migrants encountered. This confrontation is visible in many aspects of Indian religion and philosophy. For example, the Vedic hymns show conflicts between the Arya people (the Indo-Aryans) and the local population. There was also a contrast between two attitudes: one focused on enriching life, and the other emphasizing asceticism and renunciation. Various schools of thought emerged in the Ganges Plain, including sceptics, naturalists, determinists, and those who denied the existence of the soul. Jainism and Buddhism also arose as movements that opposed the Vedic religion and the Upanishadic concept of atman (the soul).
The logical period
The logical period of Indian philosophy began with the Kushan dynasty (1st–2nd centuries CE). During this time, Gautama, who authored the Nyaya-sutras (probably in the early Christian era), and his 5th-century commentator Vatsyayana laid the foundations of the Nyaya school, which focused on logic and epistemology. The Madhyamika school of Buddhism, also known as the Shunyavada or “Way of Emptiness,” emerged during this period, with Nagarjuna (c. 200 CE) being a key figure.
The ultra-logical period
By the 11th century, Muslim rule in India had firmly established itself, leading to the disappearance of Buddhism from the country. Over time, Hinduism absorbed many Buddhist ideas and practices, with the Buddha being depicted as an incarnation of Vishnu in Hindu texts. The arrival of Muslim rulers required Hinduism to adapt, and during this period, major works on Hindu law were written. Jainism, however, remained true to its original teachings, and important Jain texts, like Pramananayatattvalokalamkara by Devasuri (12th century CE) and Prameyakamalamartanda by Prabhachandra (11th century CE), were created.
Historical development of Indian philosophy
Presystematic philosophy
Shruti and the nature of authority
All “orthodox” philosophies in India are based on ideas found in the Vedas, considered sacred scriptures in Hinduism, but not in Buddhism or Jainism. The Vedanta schools, in particular, strongly align with the authority of shruti (meaning “that which is heard”), which refers to texts believed to be revealed. The school of Mimamsa focuses on interpreting these sacred texts.
Development of the notion of transmigration
The hymns in the Vedas generally reflect a positive view of human life, focusing on enjoying life fully, both in this world and the next, rather than seeking to escape it. The idea of transmigration (the cycle of rebirth) and the different paths that souls take based on their actions—such as the world of Vishnu (the preserver) for good and the realm of Yama (the god of death) for the wicked—are present in the Vedas. However, the concept of rebirth as a result of ignorance and the idea of liberation from this cycle as the highest spiritual goal is not found in the hymns.
Origin of the concept of Brahman and Atman
The Upanishads answer “Who is the ultimate being?” by equating Brahman with Atman. Brahman refers to the greatest reality, the supreme being, which manifests in the world. It is understood as atman, the innermost self within every person, yet it is also the essence present in all beings. This connection gives both terms a deeper spiritual meaning. Originally, atman referred to breath or vital essence and even the body. Over time, its meaning expanded to include that which pervades, gives, consumes, and accompanies life.
The principles underlying macrocosm and microcosm
Efforts were made to connect the universal (macrocosm) and individual (microcosm) by identifying their true essences. The manifested universe was linked to the physical body, the world’s soul (Hiranyagarbha), the vital life force, and God, or Ishvara, as a self-conscious being, to the thinking self. However, the transcendent self and Brahman as bliss are not separate concepts but are considered the same.
Early Buddhist developments
Buddhism was not entirely new in India’s religious history; it was built on existing ideas from both Brahmanic and non-Brahmanic traditions. In the 6th century BCE, before the Buddha’s teachings, several schools of thought were already challenging Brahmanic beliefs like atman, karma, and moksha. These included naturalists like Purana Kassapa, who denied the moral effects of human actions; determinists like Makkhali Gosala, who rejected sin and free will; materialists like Ajita Keshakambalin, who denied virtue, vice, and the afterlife; and ascetic thinkers like Nigantha Nataputta, who believed in salvation through self-discipline. Lastly, Sanjaya Belathiputta, a sceptic, refused to take a definitive stance on questions of the afterlife.
The Four Noble Truths and the nature of suffering
In this intellectual environment, Gotama (Sanskrit Gautama), the historical Buddha, taught his Four Noble Truths. The first truth is dukkha (often translated as “suffering,” but more accurately referring to dissatisfaction with life in the material world). The second truth explains that dukkha arises from tanha, which means “desire” or “craving.” The third truth is that it is possible to end dukkha, and the fourth truth outlines the path to ending it, known as the Eightfold Path.
Conclusion
Indian philosophy offers timeless wisdom that continues to inspire and guide modern living. Its emphasis on self-awareness, mindfulness, and interconnectedness provides valuable insights into navigating contemporary life’s complexities. Whether through meditation, the pursuit of dharma, or the understanding of the impermanence of life, these ancient teachings encourage a balanced approach to personal growth, relationships, and the world around us. By embracing the principles of Indian philosophy, we can foster inner peace, clarity, and a deeper sense of purpose, making it a powerful tool for creating a meaningful and fulfilling life in today’s fast-paced world.
